Industrialization in Europe: tilting the balance of power (LESSON 1)

The UK’s dominant position started to be challenged in the 1850s, especially by the USA and, to a lesser extent, by Germany. The USA and Germany pioneered the second industrial revolution which started in the middle of the 19th century (i.e. increased automation, steel, petroleum, electricity, internal combustion engine, automobiles, chemicals, railroads, telegraph, telephone, radio, improving social conditions, expansion of middle class).

Periods of economic growth (“boom”) during the age of industrialization were the 1830s to about 1870, and again from 1896 up to 1929. WW1 and WW2 were destructive but nonetheless very profitable to certain industries (armament, chemicals, oil, steel, building, etc.).

1873 to 1896 was a period of economic downturn (the "Long Depression"). So was the Great Depression from 1929 (Wall Street Crash) to 1939 (start of WW2).

Answers to the questions on the bar chart (cf. Skill n°3, p. 116), document 1, p. 10:

1) The UK was the principal economy in 1860 (20% of world industrial production). The US was the principal economy in 1938 (more than 30% of world industrial production).

2) The UK in 1860 had 20%, in 1870 it had 32%, in 1885 it had 27%, in 1913 it had 13%, in 1929 it had 10%, and in 1938 it had only 9% of world industrial production. Germany in 1860 had only 5%, in 1870 it had 12%, in 1885 it had 13%, in 1913 it had 15%, in 1929 it fell to 12%, and in 1938 it had 11% of world industrial production. France in 1860 had 9%, in 1870 it had 10%, in 1885 it had 9%, in 1913 its share had fallen to 5%, by 1929 it stagnated at about 6%, and in 1938 it had dropped to 4% of world industrial production. The Soviet Union became a major economy by 1938 with a sharp increase to 20% of world industrial production. The graph shows us that, after 1885, the UK was no longer the dominant industrial power in the world (the USA gained the leading position and has maintained it ever since, even during the Great Depression). Germany’s economy started to outperform the UK’s by 1913. If Europe’s main economies (UK, Germany, France) are considered as “one”, it could indeed be argued that Europe’s economic power ruled the world up to WW1.

3) The USA lost 10% of its share in world industrial production. The UK, France and Germany suffered an economic downturn, but less dramatic than that of the US. The Soviet Union gained 15% of world industrial production. Japan’s economy picked up slightly by 1938 (4% of world industrial production).

Cartoon by John Tenniel in Punch

Comments on document 2, p. 10:

Germany’s economy challenged the UK’s dominant position from the mid-19^th century on because of Germany's investment in new industries. This cartoon, dated 1896, criticises England, shown as a skinny (poor) old lady dozing (inactive), for being insufficiently competitive. Germany is personified as a stout (i.e. successful) travelling salesman who, on his way to the “market” (i.e. world trade), takes advantage of the situation to “cut” into Britain’s share of world trade (the petticoat representing “British trade”). John Tenniel, the Punch cartoonist, wanted the UK to “wake up” and react to Germany’s opportunism (it is taking advantage of British “laziness”). Tenniel’s accusation is justified because though Germany’s share of world industrial production had only grown by 1% between 1870 and 1885, it was rising fast so that by 1896, date of the cartoon, Germany felt like a real threat. By 1913, Germany had 15% of world trade compared to the UK’s 12%.

Forging files, Cyclops Steel and Iron Works

E. F. Skinner (1914-1918)

Comments on document 3, p. 11:

What is the title, who is the artist, when was it made? What is the historical context? What does it show and how has the artist chosen to depict the scene (effects on the observer, then and now)? Who was the painting commissioned by and for what reason? 

This oil painting (in a Realism style) by E. F. Skinner (a little-known artist), made sometime during WW1, shows a Sheffield workshop where iron files are being made. A (steam?) engine (unseen) turns axles; wheels positioned along these axles run driving belts which activate the individual forging presses below.

The artist shows in detail the working conditions (and we can see how files are made). The men are concentrated and working diligently. The workshop is clean and well-ordered though undoubtedly noisy and full of smoke. The men do not wear protective clothing and the lighting is inadequate. The work is repetitive and uninteresting (the men work long hours, for low pay, and they are probably bored and tired). The central figure (he is "spotlighted" by the artist) can be seen either as a docile worker (and lucky because he has a job) or as a victim of dehumanising work.

The painting was one of six on the theme of industrial production by Skinner commissioned by the Cammell Laird shipbuilding company. Perhaps the paintings were used as "adverts" by the industrialists to show their clients their products and the "decent" conditions in which the products were made? The paintings were photographed and the photos used to make postcards which were sold in aid of the Red Cross. The (propaganda) postcards were used to show that workers were essential to the war effort.

The painting shows that production is not large-scale, there is no assembly line, the semi-skilled workers work alone, and the product is standardized but hand-made (no automation). Production is slow and inefficient. This primary source document illustrates the fact that the UK economy at the start of the 20^th century was still based mostly on “traditional” industrial production (here, metallurgy), and the production methods have not evolved. The British economy failed to reform and innovate and was thus overtaken by Germany (and the USA).

Comments on document 4, p. 11:

This extract from Harold Baron’s 1909 book informs us that, in contrast to what was happening in the UK (cf. doc. 3), in Germany industry was large-scale, dynamic, innovative (chemical manufacture) and efficient. The second industrial revolution was pioneered (along with the USA) in Germany and enabled it to become Europe’s leading economy by WW1.